BENTUK ORGANISASI KOPERASI ATAU MANAJEMEN ORGANISASI

BENTUK ORGANISASI KOPERASI ATAU MANAJEMEN ORGANISASI

Struktur organisasi adalah konfigurasi peran formal yang didalamnya dimaksudkan sebagai prosedur, governansi dan mekanisme kontrol, kewenangan serta proses pengambilan kebijakan .

Struktur organisasi koperasi dibentuk sedemikan rupa sesuai dengan idiologi dan strategi pengembangan untuk memperoleh Strategic competitiveness sehingga setiap koperasi boleh jadi mempunyai bentuk yang berbeda secara fungsional karena menyesuaikan dengan strategi yang sedang dikembangkan tetepi secara basic idologi terutama terkait dengan perangkat organisasi koperasi akan menunjukan kesamaan.
Sebagai pengelola koperasi, pengurus menghadapi berbagai macam masalah yang harus diselesaikan. Masalah yang paling sulit adalah masalah yang timbul dari dalam dirinya sendiri, yaitu berupa keterbatasan. Keterbatasan dalam hal pengetahuan paling sering terjadi, sebab seorang pengurus harus diangkat oleh, dan dari anggota, sehingga belum tentu dia merupakan orang yang profesional di bidang perusahaan. Dengan kemampuannya yang terbatas, serta tingkat pendidikan yang terbatas pula, pengurus perlu mengangkat karyawan yang bertugas membantunya dalam mengelola koperasi agar pekerjaan koperasi dapat diselesaikan dengan baik.
Dengan masuknya berbagai pihak yang ikut membantu pengurus mengelola usaha koperasi, semakin kompleks pula struktur organisasi koperasi tersebut. Pemilihan bentuk struktur organisasi koperasi harus disesuaikan dengan macam usaha, volume usaha, maupun luas pasar dari produk yang dihasilkan. Pada prinsipnya semua bentuk organisasi baik, walaupun masing-masing mempunyai kelemahan.

Ada baiknya kita sedikit membahas tentang perangkat organisasi koperasi. setidaknya dalam koperasi kita mengenal 3 perangkat organisasi yang jamak digunakan yaitu:

- Rapat Anggota
- Pengurus
- Pengawas

Bentuk Organisasi Menurut Hanel :
Merupakan bentuk koperasi / organisasi yang tanpa memperhatikan bentuk hukum dan dapat didefiniskan dengan pengertian hukum.
• Suatu sistem sosial ekonomi atau sosial tehnik yang terbuka dan berorientasi pada tujuan.
• Sub sistem koperasi :
- individu (pemilik dan konsumen akhir).
- Pengusaha Perorangan/kelompok ( pemasok /supplier).
- Badan Usaha yang melayani anggota dan masyarakat.

Bentuk Organisasi Koperasi Menurut Para ahli :

Bentuk Organisasi Menurut Ropke :
Koperasi merupakan bentuk organisasi bisnis yang para anggotanya adalah juga pelanggar utama dari perusahaan.
• Identifikasi Ciri Khusus.
- Kumpulan sejumlah individu dengan tujuan yang sama (kelompok koperasi).
- Kelompok usaha untuk perbaikan kondisi sosial ekonomi (swadaya kelompok koperasi).
- Pemanfaatan koperasi secara bersama oleh anggota (perusahaan koperasi).
- Koperasi bertugas untuk menunjang kebutuhan para anggotanya (penyediaan barang dan jasa).
• Sub sistem
- Anggota Koperasi.
- Badan Usaha Koperasi.
- Organisasi Koperasi.

Bentuk Organisasi Di Indonesia :
Merupakan suatu susunan tanggung jawab para anggotanya yang melalui hubungan dan kerjasama dalam organisasi perusahaan tersebut.
• Bentuk : Rapat Anggota, Pengurus, Pengelola dan Pengawas
•Rapat Anggota,
• Wadah anggota untuk mengambil keputusan
• Pemegang Kekuasaan Tertinggi, dengan tugas :
- Penetapan Anggaran Dasar
- Kebijaksanaan Umum (manajemen, organisasi & usaha koperasi)
- Pemilihan, pengangkatan & pemberhentian pengurus
- Rencana Kerja, Rencana Budget dan Pendapatan sertapengesahan Laporan Keuangan
- Pengesahan pertanggung jawaban
- Pembagian SHU
- Penggabungan, pendirian dan peleburan.

Pola Manajemen Koperasi

Definisi Paul Hubert Casselman dalam bukunya bejudul“ The Cooperative Movement and someof its Problems” yang mengatakan bahwa :“Cooperation is an economic system with social content”. Artinya koperasi harus bekerja menurut prinsip-prinsip ekonomi dengan melandaskan pada azas-azas koperasi yang mengandung unsur-unsur sosial di dalamnya.
Unsur sosial yang terkandung dalam prinsip koperasi lebih menekankan kepada hubungan antar anggota, hubungan anggota dengan pengurus, tentang hak suara, cara pembagian dari sisa hasil usaha dan sebagainya seperti yang dapat kita lihat dalam:
- Kesamaan derajat yang diwujudkan dalam “one man one vote” dan “no voting by proxy”.
- Kesukarelaan dalam keanggotaan
- Menolong diri sendiri (self help)
- Persaudaraan/kekeluargaan (fraternity and unity)
- Demokrasi yang terlihat dan diwujudkan dalam cara pengelolaan dan pengawasan yang dilakukan oleh anggota.
- Pembagian sisa hasil usaha proporsional dengan jasa-jasanya.
Definisi Manajemen menurut Stoner adalah suatu proses perencanaan, pengorganisasian, pengarahan, dan pengawasan usaha-usaha para anggota organisasi dan penggunaan sumberdaya-sumberdaya organisasi lainnya agar mencapai tujuan organisasi yang telah ditetapkan.
Menurut Prof. Ewell Paul Roy, Ph.D mengatakan bahwa manajemen koperasi melibatkan 4 unsur (perangkat) yaitu:
a). Anggota
b). Pengurus
c). Manajer
d). Karyawan merupakan penghubung antara manajemen dan anggota pelanggan

Fungsi & Tujuan Koperasi

Koperasi adalah organisasi bisnis yang dimiliki dan dioperasikan oleh orang-seorang demi kepentingan bersama. Koperasi melandaskan kegiatan berdasarkan prinsip gerakan ekonomi rakyat  yang berdasarkan asas kekeluargaan.

Theory of the firm; perusahaan perlu menetapkan tujuan. Tujuannya antara lain :

1. Mendefinisikan organisasi

2. Mengkoordinasikan keputusan

3. Menyediakan norma

4. Sasaran yang lebih nyata

Tujuan perusahaan :

1. Maxmize profit maximize he value of the firm, minimize cost

Koperasi

1. Berorientasi pada profit oriented & benefit oriented
2. Landasan operasional didasarkan pada pelayanan (service at a cost)
3. Memajukan kesejahteraan anggota merupakan prioritas utama (UU No. 25, 1992)
4. Kesulitan utama pada pengukuran nilai benefit dan nilai perusahaan

Kontribusi Teori Bisnis pada Success Koperasi

1. Maximization of sales (William Banmoldb); usaha untuk memaksimumkan penjualan setelah keuntungan yang diperoleh telah memuaskan para pemegang saham (stake holders).
2. Maximization of management utility (Oliver Williamson); penerapan pemisahan pemilik dan manajemen (separation of management from ownership) dan maksimalisasi penggunaan manajemen.
3. Satisfying Behaviour (Herbert Simon); diperlukan adanya perjuangan dan usaha keras dari pihak manajemen untuk memuaskan beberapa tujuan yang telah ditentukan, seperti sales, growth, market share, dll.

Konsep laba dalam koperasi adalah SHU; semakin tinggi partisipasi anggota, maka semakin tinggi manfaat yang diterima.

1. Innovation theory of profit; perolehan laba yang maksimal karena adanya keberhasilan organisasi dalam melakukan inovasi terhadap produknya.
2. Managerial Efficiency Theory of profit; organisasi yang dikelola dengan efisien akan meraih laba di atas rata-rata laba normal.

Dalam kegiatan koperasi terdapat faktor yang membuat kegiatan koperasi menjadi sukses :

1. Status dan motif anggota koperasi

Anggota sebagai pemilik (owners) dan sekaligus pengguna (users/customers).

Owners : menanamkan modal investasi.

Kriteria minimal anggota koperasi :

a. Tidak berada di bawah garis kemiskinan & memiliki potensi ekonomi

b. Memiliki pola income reguler yang pasti.

1. Bidang usaha (bisnis)

Usaha yang berkaitan langsung dengan kepentingan anggota untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan anggota.

a. Dapat memberikan pelayanan untuk masyarakat (bila terdapat kelebihan kapasitas; dalam rangka optimalisasi economies of scale).

b. Usaha dan peran utama dalam bidang sendi kehidupan ekonomi rakyat.

2. Permodalan Koperasi

UU 25/992 pasal. 41; Modal koperasi terdiri atas modal sendiri dan modal pinjaman (luar).

1. Modal Sendiri ; simpanan pokok anggota, simpanan wajib, dana cadangan, donasi atau dana hibah.

2. Modal Pinjaman; bersumber dari anggota, koperasi lain dan atau anggotanya, bank dan lembaga keuangan lainnya, penerbitan obligasi dan surat hutang lainnya dan sumber lainnya yang sah.

3. Manajemen Koperasi

Elemen – elemen yang terdapat di dalam Koperasi: 

• Rapat Anggota
• Pengurus
• Pengawas
• Manajer
• Partisipasi Anggota

4. Organisasi Koperasi

Organisasi Koperasi yaitu Organisasi yang saling berhubungan satu dengan yang lain. Yang saling partisipatif satu dengan elemen yang lain.

5. Sistem Pembagian Keuntungan (Sisa Hasil Usaha)

    SHU setelah dikurangi dana cadangan, dibagikan kepada anggota sebanding jasa usaha yang dilakukan oleh masing-masing anggota dengan koperasi, serta digunakan untuk keperluan pendidikan perkoperasian dan keperluan koperasi, sesuai dengan keputusan Rapat Anggota.

a. SHU yang dibagi adalah yang bersumber dari anggota.

b. SHU anggota adalah jasa dari modal dan transaksi usaha yang dilakukan anggota sendiri.

c. Pembagian SHU anggota dilakukan secara transparan.

d. SHU anggota dibayar secara tunai

                                                                                                                          

SUMBER ::
http://www.gusbud.web.id/2010/04/manajemen-koperasi-struktur-organisasi.html
http://yuyunchelsea.wordpress.com/2011/10/02/bab-3-bentuk-organisasi-dan-manajemen-koperasi/

Konsep, Aliran & Sejarah Koperasi

Konsep, Aliran & Sejarah Koperasi

Konsep Koperasi

*) konsep koperasi barat

merupakan organisasi swasta, yang di bentuk secara sukarela oleh orang – orang yang mempunyai persamaan kepentingan, dengan maksud mengurusi kepentingan para anggotanya serta menciptakan keuntungan timbal balik bagi anggota koperasi maupun perusahaan koperasi.

#) unsur – unsur positif konsep koperasi barat :

1. keinginan individu dapat dipuaskan dengan cara bekerjasama antar sesama anggota,dengan saling membantu dan saling menguntungkan.

2. setiap individu dengan tujuan yang sama dapat berpartisipasi untuk mendapatkan keuntungan dan menanggung resiko bersama.

3. keuntungan yang belum didistribusikan akan dimasukan sebagai cadangan koperasi.

#) dampak langsung koperasi terhadap anggotanya :

1. promosi kegiatan ekonomi anggota

2. pengembangan usaha perusahaan koperasi dalam hal investasi, pengembangan sdm, pengembangan keahlian untuk bertindak sebagai wirausahawan dan bekerjasama antar koperasi secara horizontal dan vertical.

*) konsep koperasi sosialis

koperasi direncanakan dan dikendalikan oleh pemerintah dan dibentuk dengan tujuan merasionalkan produksi, untuk menunjang perencanaan nasional.

*) konsep koperasi negara berkembang

koperasi sudah berkembang dengan ciri tersendiri, yaitu dominasi campur tangan pemerintah dalam pembinaan dan pengembangannya.


aliran koperasi

*) aliran yardstick 

1. dijumpai pada negara-negara yang berideologi kapitalis atau yang menganut perekonomian liberal.

2. koperasi dapat menjadi kekuatan untuk mengimbangi, menetralisasikan dan mengoreksi.

3. pemerintah tidak melakukan campur tangan terhadap jatuh bangunnya koperasi di tengah –tengah masyarakat. maju tidaknya koperasi terletak di tangan anggota koperasi sendiri.

*) aliran sosialis

1. koperasi dipandang sebagai alat yang paling efektif untuk mencapai kesejahteraan masyarakat.

2. pengaruh aliran ini banyak dijumpai di negara- negara eropa timur dan rusia.

*) aliran persemakmuran (commonwealth)

1. koperasi sebagai alat yang efisien dan efektif dalam meningkatkan kualitas ekonomi masyarakat.

2. koperasi sebagai wadah ekonomi rakyat berkedudukan strategis dan memegang peranan utama dalam struktur perekonomian masyarakat.

3. hubungan pemerintah dengan gerakan koperasi bersifat kemitraan (partnership), dimana pemerintah bertanggung jawab dan berupaya agar iklim pertumbuhan koperasi tercipta dengan baik.

kemakmuran masyarakat berdasarkan koperasi karangan e.d. damanik membagi koperasi menjadi 4 aliran atau schools of cooperatives berdasarkan peranan dan fungsinya dalam konstelasi perekonomian negara, yakni :

a. cooprative commonwealth school

aliran ini merupakan cerminan sikap yang menginginkan dan memperjuangkan agar prinsip- prinsip koperasi diberlakukan pada bagian luas kegiatan manusia dan lembaga, sehingga koperasi memberi pengaruh dan kekuatan yang dominant di tengah masyarakat.

b. school of modified capitalism (schooll yardstick)

suatu paham yang menganggap koperasi sebagai suatu bentuk kapitalisme, namun memiliki suatu perangkat peraturan yang menuju pada pengurangan dampak negative dari kapitalis.

c. the socialist school

suatu paham yang menganggap koperasi sebagai bagian dari sistem sosialis.

d. cooperative sector school 

paham yang menganggap filsafat koperasi sebagai sesuatu yang berbeda dari kapitalisme maupun sosialisme, dan karenanya berada di antara kapitalis dan sosialis.


sejarah perkembangan koperasi

*) sejarah lahirnya koperasi

1. 1844 di rochdale inggris, lahirnya koperasi modern yang berkembang dewasa ini. th 2852 jumlah koperasi di inggris sudah mencapai 100 unit.

2. 1862 dibentuklah “the cooperative whole sale society (cws).

3. 1818 – 1888 koperasi berkembang di jerman dipelopori oleh ferdinand lasalle, fredrich w. raiffesen.

4. 1808 – 1883 koperasi berkembang di denmark dipeloporo oleh herman schulze.\

5. 1896 di london terbentuklah ica (international cooperative alliance) maka koperasi telah menjadi suatu gerakan internasional.

*) sejarah perkembangan koperasi di indonesia

1. 1895 di leuwiliang didirikan pertama kali koperasi di indonesia (sukoco, “seratus tahun koperasi di indonesia”). raden ngabei ariawiriaatmadja, patih purwokerto dkk mendirikan bank simpan pinjamuntuk menolong teman sejawatnya para pegawai negeri pribumi melepaskan diri dari cengkeraman pelepas uang. bank simpan pinjam tersebut, semacam bank tabungan jika dipakai istilah uu no.14 tahun 1967 tentang pokok pokok pebankan, di beri nama “de poerwokertosche hulpen spaarbank der inlandsche hoofden” = bank simpan pinjam para “priayi” purwokerto.

2. 1920 diadakan cooperative commissie yang diketuai oleh dr. jh. boeke sebagai adviseur voor volkscredietwezen. komisi ini diberi tugas untuk menyelidiki apakah koperasi bermanfaat di indonesia.

3. 12 juli 1947 diselenggarakan kongres gerakan koperasi se jawa yang pertama di tasikmalaya.

4. 1960 pemerintah mengeluarkan peraturan pemerintah no. 140 tentang penyaluran bahan pokok dan menugaskan koperasi srbagai pelaksananya.

5. 1961, diselenggarakan musyawarah nasional koperasi 1 (munaskop 1) di surabaya untuk melaksanakan prinsip demokrasi terpimpin dan ekonomi terpimpin.

6. 1965, pemerintah mengeluarkan undang undang no. 14 th 1965, dimana prinsip nasakom (nasionalis, sosialis, dan komunis) diterapkan di koperasi.

7. 1967 pemerintah mengeluarkan undang- undang no. 12 tahun 1967 tentang pokok – pokok perkoperasian disempurnaan dan diganti dengan uu no 25 tahun 1992 tentang perkoperasian.

8. peraturan pemerintah no. 29 tahun 1995 tentang kegiatan usaha simpan pinjam dan koperasi.


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The Role of Computer in Business


All businesses need to be well organised to achieve their aims and objectives. Certain tasks, or functions, must be done regularly and 
these are usually grouped into specific types of activities. In a 
large organisation like Tesco PLC, people work together in functional 
areas. Each functional area has a specific purpose. Below are the main 
functional areas: 

Finance 

The main activities of the finance department are: 

* To record all the business transactions 

This means that they record in their schedule all the expenses that 
have been paid and all incomings. They also make sure that each 
department does not spend more than it has been allocated. 

* Measure the financial performance of Tesco 

This means the finance department look at how well or badly Tesco is 
doing financially. 

* To control the finances and cash flow so Tesco stays reliable. 

This means that they make sure that there is enough money in the 
business to pay off debts, bills and the employees. They also make 
sure that there is enough money to survive for the company. 

* To take timely financial decisions by comparing the predicted 
performance with actual performance. 

This means that if the company wants to invest more , then it 
would be up to the finance department to make the decision on whether 
there are enough funds to do. They would do this by looking and 
comparing the financial situation in previous years with the financial 
situation of the present year. By this they can see the expense will 
leave them with enough money at the end. They also prepare all the 
accounts each year so that the company comply with their legal 
responsibilities to the Inland Revenue and complete VAT returns which 
they send to HM Customs and Excise. 

Import and Export


Import export businesses, also known as international trading, are one of the hottest commercial trends of this decade. American companies trade in over 2.5 trillion dollars a year in merchandise, of which small businesses control over 95 percent. As the owner of an import export enterprise, you can work as a distributor by focusing on exporting and importing goods and services that cannot be obtained on national soil (e.g., Russian caviar and French perfumes) or those that are cheaper when imported from other countries (e.g., Chinese electronics).

In addition, you can also open an export management company (EMC), where you can help an existing corporation market its products in a foreign country by arranging the shipping and storing of the merchandise for them without doing the actual selling. EMCs can specialize in one industry or work with different types of import export manufacturers. It is also possible to act as a broker for a company, working on commission over the actual sales. This is a great choice for products that are guaranteed to sell because of high demand or an established brand name.

While basically any country can offer opportunities for import export trade, Canada, Mexico, Japan, and China have topped the trading chart for the past two decades. In the last few years, countries in the former Soviet Union and South America have become major players, but there's still much to learn about trading with these new markets.

Opening an import export business requires an initial investment of $5,000 or more, depending not only on the type of merchandise you're setting up to market, but also on whether you plan on working from home or renting an office, hiring employees, etc. Compared to other businesses, however, import export companies have a very low startup cost.While most products can be exported without the need for licenses, some specialty products or high-risk items, such as firearms or pharmaceuticals, may require special government permits. If that's the case, costs may run considerably higher.


To get started, it may be sensible to consult with the local Board of Trade (or the Chamber of Commerce in smaller cities) or call Consulates and Embassies to find out if they have import export programs set up. Many embassies even have a special department to promote the export of their goods to other countries and are more than happy to help potential import export traders.

Modern Banking

The Modern Banking System (Where does money come from?)

"If the debt which the banking companies owe be a blessing to anybody, it is to themselves alone, who are realizing a solid interest of eight or ten per cent on it. As to the public, these companies have banished all our gold and silver medium, which, before their institution, we had without interest, which never could have perished in our hands, and would have been our salvation now in the hour of war; instead of which they have given us two hundred million of froth and bubble, on which we are to pay them heavy interest, until it shall vanish into air... We are warranted, then, in affirming that this parody on the principle of 'a public debt being a public blessing,' and its mutation into the blessing of private instead of public debts, is as ridiculous as the original principle itself. In both cases, the truth is, that capital may be produced by industry, and accumulated by economy; but jugglers only will propose to create it by legerdemain tricks with paper." 
- Thomas Jefferson to John W. Eppes, 1813. ME 13:423



"The modern banking system manufactures money out of nothing. The process is perhaps the most astounding piece of sleight of hand that was ever invented. Banking was conceived in iniquity and born in sin. Bankers own the Earth. Take it away from them, but leave them the power to create money, and with the flick of the pen they will create enough money to buy it back again...Take this great power away from them and all great fortunes like mine will disappear, and they ought to disappear, for then this would be a better and happier world to live in. But if you want to continue to be slaves of the banks and pay the cost of your own slavery, then let bankers continue to create money and control credit'."


- Sir Josiah Stamp, The Bank of England

Money and its Function

Money does not just consist of notes and coins. Only about 3 to 5% of the UK’s money supply consists of actual cash. Most money is held as deposits in banks and other financial institutions. The bulk of these deposits only appear as book keeping entries in the accounts of these institutions. It is possible for people to access the money in their accounts through the use of debit cards, cheques, standing orders, direct debits and so on without the need for cash. This means that banks and other financial institutions need to keep only a small percentage of these deposits in their safes and at their counters in the form of cash.

The Functions of Money
The primary function of money is to facilitate the buying and selling of goods, services and assets. This is known as a medium of exchange. There are also two other main functions of money. The main functions are covered in more depth below:

• Medium of exchange. In an economy where people make items themselves to meet their own needs there would be no need for money as people would barter using their spare items that they have produced. If one person wanted an item another person had they would simple barter and arrange an exchange of goods. In a modern economy which is highly developed, barter would be impractical in most circumstances. What is needed is a medium of exchange which is generally acceptable as a means of payment for goods, services, labour and factors of production/ service. Money carries out this function. To be an effective and suitable means of exchange, money must be light for it to be carried around, be divisible (come in different denominations) and not be easy forged or replicated.
  
• Means of Evaluation. Money allows for the comparison of the value of goods, services and assets. The value of goods and services is expressed in terms of prices and these prices are expressed in terms of money. This allows for different items which are dissimilar, such as a company’s assets, to be added up. Money, thus serves as a ‘unit of account’.
  
• Store of wealth. People and organisations need to be able to use the earnings of one days labour or operation to purchase goods and services in the future. This would mean they would need to store their wealth and that they need a means of saving. Money facilitates the storing of wealth as it can be saved.

Why Finance ?

Why Finance Matters - Building Financial Acumen

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Use Why Finance Matters to equip leaders with the financial know-how to develop business plans and budgets and make decisions that contribute to your organization’s bottom line. Already an integral part of many corporate university leadership development programs, Why Finance Matters is also an ideal foundation for executive-level case studies and strategic simulations—ensuring that participants of varying financial backgrounds enjoy a level playing field.

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For professionals charged with investing in new products and making significant technology and infrastructure commitments, Why Finance Matters provides analytic tools that assure your organization and shareholders an acceptable return. Managers will optimize the way they manage inventories, collect receivables, process transactions and extend credit to improve cash flow and return on sales. In fact, consider Why Finance Matters for any manager or knowledge worker who needs to understand the financial impacts of everyday decisions and the ripple effects across other work units.

Incorporate Your Own Business Financials in the Learning Process

All of the case examples in Why Finance Matters™ are easy for learners to grasp and then apply to their own work environment. But BTS can also customize the learning experience to include your organization’s financials as well as terminology and key performance ratios specific to your industry, your customers and your competition. The process is surprisingly quick and easy: You’ll find our consultants extremely adept at understanding your business goals and objectives..

The Balance Sheet

The Balance Sheet, one type of financial condition statement, provides a summary of what company owns and what it owes on a particular day.

Assets represent everything of value that is owned by a business, 5 such as property, equipment, and accounts receivable. on the another hand, liabilities are the debts owed by a company-for example, to suppliers and banks. if liabilities are subtracted from assets, the amount remaining is the owners share of a business. this is known as owners or stockholders equity.


The balance sheet must follow the following formula:

Assets = Liabilities + Shareholders' Equity

It's called a balance sheet because the two sides balance out. This makes sense: a company has to pay for all the things it has (assets) by either borrowing money (liabilities) or getting it from shareholders (shareholders' equity).

Each of the three segments of the balance sheet will have many accounts within it that document the value of each. Accounts such as cash, inventory and property are on the asset side of the balance sheet, while on the liability side there are accounts such as accounts payable or long-term debt. The exact accounts on a balance sheet will differ by company and by industry, as there is no one set template that accurately accommodates for the differences between different types of businesses.

An Accounting Overview

Accounting is frequently called the “language of business” because of its ability to communicate financial information abaout an organization. Various interested parties, such as managers, potential investors, creditors, and the government, depend on a company’s accounting system to help them make informed financial decisions. An affective accounting system, therefore, must include accurate collecting, recording, classifying, summarizing, interpreting, and reporting of information on the financial status of an organization.


In order to achieve a standardized system, the accounting process follows accounting principles and rules. Regardless of the type of business or the amount of money involved, common procedures for handling and presenting financial information are used. Incoming money (revenues) and outgoing money (expenditures) are carefully monitored, and transaction are summarized in financial statements, which reflect the major financial activities of an organization.


Two common financial statements are the balance sheet and the income statement. The balance sheet shows the financial position of a company at one point in time, while the income statement shows financial performance of a company over a period of time. Financial statement allow interested parties to compare one organization to another and/or to compare accounting periods within one organization. For example, an investor may compare the most recent income statements of two corporations in order to find out which one would be a better investement.


People who specialize in the field of accounting are known as accountants. In the United States, accountants are usually classified as public, private, or governmental. Public accountants work independently and provide accounting services such as auditing and tax computation to companies and individuals. Public accountants may earn the title of CPA(Certified Public Accountant) by fulfilling rigorous requirements. Private accountants work solely for private companies or corporations that hire them to maintain financial records, and governmental accountants work for governmental agencies or bureaus. Both private and governmental accountants are paid on a salary basis, whereas public accountants receive fees for their services.


Through effective application of commonly accepted accounting systems private, public, and govermmental accountants provide accurate and timely financial information that is necessary for organization decision making.

The Target Market

A target market is a group of customers that the business has decided to aim its marketing efforts and ultimately its merchandise towards. A well-defined target market is the first element to a marketing strategy. The target market and the marketing mix variables of product, place(distribution), promotion and price are the four elements of a marketing mix strategy that determine the success of a product in the marketplace.

Market segmentations

Target markets are groups of individuals separated by distinguishable and noticeable aspects. Target markets can be separated into:

• Geographic segmentations, addresses (their location climate region)

• demographic/socio-economic segmentation (gender, age, income, occupation, education, household size, and stage in the family life cycle)

• psychographic segmentation (similar attitudes, values, and lifestyles)

• behavioral segmentation (occasions, degree of loyalty)

• product-related segmentation (relationship to a product)

 

Strategies for Reaching Target Markets

Marketers have outlined four basic strategies to satisfy target markets: undifferentiated marketing or mass marketing, differentiated marketing, concentrated marketing, and micromarketing/ nichemarketing.

Mass marketing is a market coverage strategy in which a firm decides to ignore market segment differences and go after the whole market with one offer. It is the type of marketing (or attempting to sell through persuasion) of a product to a wide audience. The idea is to broadcast a message that will reach the largest number of people possible. Traditionally mass marketing has focused on radio, television and newspapers as the medium used to reach this broad audience.

For sales teams, one way to reach out to target markets is through direct marketing. This is done by buying consumer database based on the segmentation profiles you have defined. These database usually comes with consumer contacts (e.g. email, mobile no., home no., etc.). Caution is recommended when undertaking direct marketing efforts — check the targeted country's direct marketing laws.

Examples

CVS Caremark’s target market is women since they make up 80 percent of the pharmacy chain’s customers. CVS has marketed its stores to aid women who are constantly multitasking. They recently redesigned 1,200 of its 6,200 stores to women, including shorter wait times for prescriptions, wider and better-lit shopping aisles, and more beauty products.

The Oreo cookie is a popular cookie in the U.S., known for its two discs of chocolate with a white cream filling. The Double Stuf Oreo cookie is also marketed to U.S. consumers. However, Kraft has formulated a different version of the Oreo to target consumers in China. The Chinese version consists of four layers of long, thin biscuits coated in chocolate. Kraft CEO, Irene Rosenberg, trusts her executives who live and work in China to know what consumers would prefer in order to maximize their profits. In Germany, Kraft is appealing to the tastes and preferences of German consumers by creating dark chocolate products. It is also introducing premium instant coffee in Russia, which is a beverage that is popular to consumers.

World Wrestling Entertainment’s (WWE) target market is young males. Monday Night RAW is the number one entertainment program on primetime cable among male viewers (2 million+) including the male demographics of 18-34, 18-49 and 25-54. It is shown at 9:00 PM ET to reach its target market.

Kohl’s department store has a target market consisting of consumers buying for themselves and their families.

The psychology of target marketing

A principal concept in target marketing is that those who are targeted show a strong affinity or brand loyalty to that particular brand. Target Marketing allows the marketer / sales team to customize their message to the targeted group of consumers in a more focused manner.

Research has shown that racial similarity, role congruence, labeling intensity of ethnic identification, shared knowledge and ethnic salience all promote positive effects on the target market. Research has generally shown that target marketing strategies are constructed from consumer inferences of similarities between some aspects of the advertisement (e.g., source pictured, language used, lifestyle represented) and characteristics of the consumer (e.g. reality or desire of having the represented style). Consumers are persuaded by the characteristics in the advertisement and those of the consumer.

The Four P'S

Four P's and the Marketing Mix           
The Four P’s divide the different attributes of successful marketing in to categories. The one has a part to play in the delivery of a service or product to the eventual customer.
The Four P’s, also known as the Marketing Mix consist of the following:

Price
Price is focus on the cost to the customer of choosing to buy your offering as opposed to someone else’s.
Price is generally an important factor considered by buyers who when viewing two identical products, would in most situations opt for the cheaper one.
For some products and services there might be multiple tiers of costs. For example, there may be an initial cost of acquisition and then further service charges and maintenance costs which customers would consider.
Price therefore encompasses all costs of both immediate and ongoing.
The cost of a product is not the only factor in purchasing decisions as quality, service and other factors are also determinants.

Product
Product includes the features and benefits of the offering in question, including the manner it is packaged, what it looks like and further extras such as guarantees and warranties.
Many of the factors which are part of the Product category could be intangible and may have perceived rather than actual benefits. The fact that they might not be actual advantages is largely unimportant, whilst their existence in the mind of potential purchasers is.

Place
Buyers will consider the ease of obtaining the product or service once the decision to purchase has been made.
Long lead times or inconvenient delivery schedules can put customers off and result in them selecting a more expensive product which is available now and at their convenience.
Businesses should consider customer’s expectations and the industry norm when looking at where and when their products will be available.
Bettering current accepted norms for delivery might enable the business to excel in its appeal to customers. Consider internet downloads where possible or delivery of places of work where appropriate in order to maximise the whole package of what is being sold.

Promotion
Promotion is essentially the means used to reach intended customers. Imagination and creativity can result in a business’ products or information about them being displayed in places which other competitors are not.
Internet advertising is gradually replacing more traditional form of promotion and certain websites might provide a business with an immediate and predefined audience.
By viewing each element of the marketing mix and relating them to the business’ products and services, the enterprise can seek to prepare a comprehensive and effective promotion strategy.     

Marketing

Marketing is "the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large."

For business to consumer marketing it is "the process by which companies create value for customers and build strong customer relationships, in order to capture value from customers in return".

For business to business marketing it is creating value, solutions, and relationships either short term or long term with a company or brand. It generates the strategy that underlies sales techniques, business communication, and business developments. It is an integrated process through which companies build strong customer relationships and create value for their customers and for themselves.

Marketing is used to identify the customer, satisfy the customer, and keep the customer. With the customer as the focus of its activities, marketing management is one of the major components of business management. Marketing evolved to meet the stasis in developing new markets caused by mature markets and overcapacities in the last 2-3 centuries. The adoption of marketing strategies requires businesses to shift their focus from production to the perceived needs and wants of their customers as the means of staying profitable.

The term marketing concept holds that achieving organizational goals depends on knowing the needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfactions. It proposes that in order to satisfy its organizational objectives, an organization should anticipate the needs and wants of consumers and satisfy these more effectively than competitors.

The term developed from an original meaning which referred literally to going to a market to buy or sell goods or services. Seen from a systems point of view, sales process engineering marketing is "a set of processes that are interconnected and interdependent with other functions, whose methods can be improved using a variety of relatively new approaches."